The Real Story of Race and Police Killings
By ANDREW ROSENTHAL
New York Times
SEPTEMBER 4, 2015 12:12 PM
Some readers of our editorial “The Truth of ‘Black Lives Matter’” took exception to the idea that black Americans are “disproportionately killed in encounters with the police.” One commenter pointed us to an article in The Washington Times describing an analysis by Peter Moskos, assistant professor at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York. The analysis purports to show that white people are more likely than black people to be killed by the police.
It’s hard to get real data on this. The statistics Mr. Moskos uses are deeply flawed. He drew his conclusions from a website called killedbypolice.net, which tracks news reports of fatal shootings by police. Some 25 percent of the entries have no race listed.
In any case, the numbers are misleading. “Based on that data, Mr. Moskos reported that roughly 49 percent of those killed by officers from May 2013 to April 2015 were white, while 30 percent were black,” the Washington Times article said. “He also found that 19 percent were Hispanic.”
That may be true, but whites make up 63 percent of the population of this country. Blacks are just 12 percent.
When Mr. Moskos adjusted his data to account for that, he found that black men were 3.5 times more likely to be killed by cops than white men. That’s inconvenient.
So Mr. Moskos did what other deniers of reality on this issue do: He larded into the results data on the homicide rate among African Americans, and then proclaimed that if you take that data into account, whites are at higher risk than blacks.
A fairer analysis, at ProPublica, found that black males aged 15 to 19 were 21 times more likely to be killed by police than white males in that age group. And The Washington Post reports that unarmed black men were seven times more likely to be killed by police this year than unarmed white men.
The point of the “Black Lives Matter” movement is not that the lives of African Americans matter more than those of white Americans, but that they matter equally, and that historically they have been treated as though they do not.
And yes, for the record, it is troubling to hear anyone chant slogans calling for violence against police officers as a small number of people did recently outside the Minnesota State Fair.
But consider what Ta-Nehisi Coates, a columnist for The Atlantic, wrote about the rioting that erupted in Baltimore earlier this year after Freddie Gray died in police custody. At the time, many public figures called for calm, and said that quiet protest was the best response.
“When nonviolence is preached as an attempt to evade the repercussions of political brutality, it betrays itself,” Mr. Coates wrote. “When nonviolence begins halfway through the war with the aggressor calling time out, it exposes itself as a ruse. When nonviolence is preached by the representatives of the state, while the state doles out heaps of violence to its citizens, it reveals itself to be a con. And none of this can mean that rioting or violence is ‘correct’ or ‘wise,’ any more than a forest fire can be ‘correct’ or ‘wise.’ Wisdom isn’t the point tonight. Disrespect is. In this case, disrespect for the hollow law and failed order that so regularly disrespects the community.”
Our columnist Charles Blow wrote at the time that one could argue that the rage of blacks in Baltimore “was misdirected, that most of the harm done was to the social fabric and the civil and economic interests in the very neighborhoods that most lack them. You would be right. But misdirected rage is not necessarily illegitimate rage.”
776 People Killed By Police So Far in 2015, 161 Of Them Unarmed
But, just 25 police officers have died from firearms-related violence in the same period.
By Mint Press News Desk | September 1, 2015
MINNEAPOLIS — So far in 2015, U.S. police killed 776 people, 161 of whom were completely unarmed at the time of their death.
The data was compiled by The Guardian for a project called “The Counted,” a continuously updated, interactive database of police killings in the United States. Based on their figures, police have killed, on average, about three people per day so far this year. The Counted database is the most comprehensive information available on police killings, since no U.S. government agency maintains a similar listing.
Police killings in America have sparked a national movement for police reform, especially since the death of Mike Brown last year in Ferguson, Missouri.
Based on The Guardian’s statistics, police killed more white people than any other race this year. A total 385 white people have been killed by police this year, and 66 of them were unarmed at the time of their death.
However, activists like the members of the Black Lives Matter movement argue that police kill blacks at a rate disproportionate to their total percentage of the population — an assertion supported by The Guardian’s statistics. Police killed almost five black people per every million black residents of the U.S., compared with about 2 per million for both white and hispanic victims.
The vast majority of those killed — 745 — were men.
People were killed by police at all ages and in every state except Rhode Island, South Dakota and Vermont, three of the country’s least populated states. Certain cities stand out as more dangerous than others: The most police by killings occurred in Los Angeles (14 dead), Houston (11), Phoenix (9), New York (7) and Oklahoma City (7).
Shooting was the most common cause of police-related death, at 680. Of the 161 unarmed individuals, 71 were shot by police. The second most common cause of death found in the study were Tasers, which led to the deaths of 39 people, followed by being struck by police vehicles (26). Twenty-eight people died in police custody, according to The Guardian, but this figure does not include victims like Sandra Bland, who died in a Texas jail under conditions many describe as suspicious, although suicide was listed as her official cause of death.
Of the 582 people who were armed at the time of their death, 374 were carrying firearms and 107 were armed with knives. Of course, the numbers also cannot account for whether those killed were actively threatening police with their weapons versus those who were not, like Paul Castaway, the Native American man killed July 12 in Denver while holding a knife to his own neck.
Although police advocates claim the frequent use of force is necessary to protect officers from a highly dangerous job, the statistics don’t seem to back this up. The National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund reported that 25 officers were killed by gunfire so far in 2015, with the Officer Down Memorial Page noting that two of those deaths came from accidental discharge of their firearms.
Further, Bureau of Labor Statistics released last year show that being a police officer is not even among the country’s 10 most dangerous professions. Indeed, those statistics show that loggers, roofers, pilots and farmers are all more likely to be killed on the job than police.
California police killings database reveals 'clear racial disparities'
Black men have been killed at eight times the rate of others over past decade
Initiative signals changing tides on disclosing data about use of deadly force
‘The bottom line is, the people have a right to know what’s going on,’ said California attorney general Kamala Harris.
Ciara McCarthy and Nadja Popovich
Monday 7 September 2015 19.00 EDT
Black men have been killed by police in California at eight times the rate of other residents over the past decade, according to records released under the first in a series of new state initiatives to disclose data on the use of deadly force by law enforcement.
Statistics published by the California attorney general, Kamala Harris, stated that about 19% of almost 1,000 homicides by law enforcement recorded between 2005 and 2014 were against African American men, who made up only about 3% of the state’s population.
Harris said last week that “clear racial disparities” had emerged from the figures, which also showed African Americans were arrested and died in custody at disproportionately high rates.
“I’m deeply concerned with what the numbers show,” congresswoman Karen Bass said at a press conference, alongside Harris. “The disproportionality that the [attorney general] referred to is frightening.”
On Wednesday, Harris unveiled a new website containing what she called a “treasure trove of data” on interactions between police and the public. The Open Justice portal includes figures regarding arrest rates, deaths in custody and officers killed or assaulted. This year, several other states have taken action to release more information.
“Instead of designing systems based on some blind adherence to tradition, let’s apply metrics, let’s count what is happening,” Harris said. She later added: “The bottom line is, the people have a right to know what’s going on.”
Since 2005, police and law enforcement agencies in California have been required to submit to state authorities detailed reports about deaths in custody. But the information was made accessible and searchable for the first time last week.
“This is the first initiative of its kind across the US, to our knowledge,” said Kristin Ford, Harris’s press secretary.
California released its data as Texas also began to mandate the reporting of both fatal and non-fatal shootings by its own law enforcement agencies. A new state law went into effect on Tuesday, requiring local police departments to notify the Texas attorney general every time a law enforcement official injures or kills a civilian in a shooting.
State representative Eric Johnson collaborated with local law enforcement to create legislation focused on aggregating data, said Ana Rodriguez, Johnson’s deputy chief of staff.
“We really thought that if we wanted something to happen right now, states have to really take action to fill that data gap,” Rodriguez said.
The initiatives by America’s two most populous states represent the most significant moves by authorities to address the absence of a full national accounting of the use of deadly force by law enforcement.
At present the federal government does not publish a comprehensive record of people killed by police forces throughout the US. Instead, the FBI runs a voluntary program whereby law enforcement can choose to submit their count of “justifiable homicides” each year.
The lack of data has been sharply criticised by activist groups. President Barack Obama’s White House policing taskforce recommended that it be addressed.
The Guardian is publishing a project, The Counted, to document every person killed by law enforcement in 2015 and the details of how they died. The interactive database is collecting data such as the race and age of those killed, in addition to whether they were armed with a weapon.
In June, US senators Barbara Boxer and Cory Booker introduced legislation that would require states to report to the Justice Department every instance in which police use of force resulted in serious injury or death. The bill is currently in the committee stage.
Maryland and Colorado have passed laws this year requiring local departments to report police use of force. Maryland’s law tracks all fatalities at the hands of police, while Colorado’s monitors every time an officer shoots at a civilian.
These states join Maine, North Carolina and Oregon, which record every police killing. Minnesota police departments must report every time an officer shoots a gun, although the data is not available to the public.
Homicides by law enforcement in California
According to California’s data, 984 homicides by law enforcement officers in the state were recorded between 2005 and 2014. A homicide by law enforcement staff was defined as “a death at the hands of a law enforcement officer”, including pre- and post-arrest killings.
Within this total, 196 or 19.9% of the people killed were black. According to the state, 5.8% of the population between 2005 and 2013 was black, giving African Americans a death rate – the percentage of homicides per percentage of population – of 3.4.
About 43.8% of people killed in police custody were Hispanic, a group that made up 37.1% of the state’s population during the last nine years, giving a death rate of 1.2.
White people were 30.2% of those killed by police and constituted 41.1% of California’s population, meaning a death rate of 0.7.
The figures mean black people were killed by law enforcement at almost five times the rate of white people and almost three times that of Hispanic people.
All but six of those black people killed were males, who made up 2.9% of the population between 2005 and 2013. The death rate for black males was 6.7 – eight times higher than the 0.8 rate recorded for homicides among everyone else.
Among men only, African Americans were killed at roughly twice the rate of Hispanics and more than four times the rate of white males.
Since 2005, the number of homicides by law enforcement officers has fluctuated. The deadliest years were 2012 and 2013, which recorded 136 and 132 deaths, respectively, according to the data.
Harris said the data also showed African Americans accounted for 17% of total arrests and 25% of all deaths in custody. She also said black boys were arrested at far higher rates than white boys.
White Ex-Police Chief Who Killed Unarmed Black Man Avoids Jail Time
He must serve one year under house arrest.
The Huffington Post
09/01/2015 04:58 PM EDT
A white ex-police chief agreed Tuesday to plead guilty to misconduct in office in the shooting death of an unarmed black man, a far lesser offense than the murder charge that ended in two mistrials.
Prosecutors agreed to drop the murder charge against 38-year-old Richard Combs, who is the former police chief of the small town of Eutawville.
A judge sentenced him to 10 years, but suspended it to 1 year of house-arrest and 5 years of probation, according to the Post and Courier.
Combs stood trial twice on the murder charge, but both cases ended with hung juries. He would have faced 30 years to life if convicted of murder.
Authorities say Combs shot Walter Bailey in May 2011 as he tried to arrest him on an obstruction of justice charge weeks after he argued about his daughter's traffic ticket for driving with a broken tail light.
Prosecutors said the obstruction warrant was trumped up because Combs was angry that Bailey made him look bad on the side on the road.
When Bailey came to the Eutawville Town Hall to ask Combs to delay the trial for his daughter's ticket, the police chief informed Bailey that there was a warrant for his arrest. Witnesses said Bailey was stunned by that development and walked out of the building and back toward his truck. Combs followed him, opened the door to the vehicle and tried to take the keys out of the ignition. The two then fought briefly in the parking lot before Combs drew his weapon and opened fire.
Combs was not threatened and could have stepped away, but fired his weapon anyway, hitting Bailey three times, prosecutors said.
Defense attorneys said Combs feared for his life because he was leaning into Bailey's pickup and had just seconds to react. They said he had no pepper spray or a Taser, which left him no option but his gun.
The jury in the first case voted 9-3 to convict Combs. The jury in the second case voted 8-4 to convict, with four jurors wanting to convict Combs of murder, four wanting to convict him of voluntary manslaughter and four who thought he was not guilty, Solicitor David Pascoe said in a hearing at the Orangeburg County courthouse.
Eutawville suspended Combs after the shooting and dismissed him several months later. The town reached a $400,000 wrongful death settlement with Bailey's family.
Eutawville is a town of 300 people 50 miles southeast of Columbia. Combs was the only police officer at the time of the shooting.
Combs' lawyer said he was emotionally and financially exhausted.
The Associated Press contributed reporting
New York Times
SEPTEMBER 4, 2015 12:12 PM
Some readers of our editorial “The Truth of ‘Black Lives Matter’” took exception to the idea that black Americans are “disproportionately killed in encounters with the police.” One commenter pointed us to an article in The Washington Times describing an analysis by Peter Moskos, assistant professor at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York. The analysis purports to show that white people are more likely than black people to be killed by the police.
It’s hard to get real data on this. The statistics Mr. Moskos uses are deeply flawed. He drew his conclusions from a website called killedbypolice.net, which tracks news reports of fatal shootings by police. Some 25 percent of the entries have no race listed.
In any case, the numbers are misleading. “Based on that data, Mr. Moskos reported that roughly 49 percent of those killed by officers from May 2013 to April 2015 were white, while 30 percent were black,” the Washington Times article said. “He also found that 19 percent were Hispanic.”
That may be true, but whites make up 63 percent of the population of this country. Blacks are just 12 percent.
When Mr. Moskos adjusted his data to account for that, he found that black men were 3.5 times more likely to be killed by cops than white men. That’s inconvenient.
So Mr. Moskos did what other deniers of reality on this issue do: He larded into the results data on the homicide rate among African Americans, and then proclaimed that if you take that data into account, whites are at higher risk than blacks.
A fairer analysis, at ProPublica, found that black males aged 15 to 19 were 21 times more likely to be killed by police than white males in that age group. And The Washington Post reports that unarmed black men were seven times more likely to be killed by police this year than unarmed white men.
The point of the “Black Lives Matter” movement is not that the lives of African Americans matter more than those of white Americans, but that they matter equally, and that historically they have been treated as though they do not.
And yes, for the record, it is troubling to hear anyone chant slogans calling for violence against police officers as a small number of people did recently outside the Minnesota State Fair.
But consider what Ta-Nehisi Coates, a columnist for The Atlantic, wrote about the rioting that erupted in Baltimore earlier this year after Freddie Gray died in police custody. At the time, many public figures called for calm, and said that quiet protest was the best response.
“When nonviolence is preached as an attempt to evade the repercussions of political brutality, it betrays itself,” Mr. Coates wrote. “When nonviolence begins halfway through the war with the aggressor calling time out, it exposes itself as a ruse. When nonviolence is preached by the representatives of the state, while the state doles out heaps of violence to its citizens, it reveals itself to be a con. And none of this can mean that rioting or violence is ‘correct’ or ‘wise,’ any more than a forest fire can be ‘correct’ or ‘wise.’ Wisdom isn’t the point tonight. Disrespect is. In this case, disrespect for the hollow law and failed order that so regularly disrespects the community.”
Our columnist Charles Blow wrote at the time that one could argue that the rage of blacks in Baltimore “was misdirected, that most of the harm done was to the social fabric and the civil and economic interests in the very neighborhoods that most lack them. You would be right. But misdirected rage is not necessarily illegitimate rage.”
776 People Killed By Police So Far in 2015, 161 Of Them Unarmed
But, just 25 police officers have died from firearms-related violence in the same period.
By Mint Press News Desk | September 1, 2015
MINNEAPOLIS — So far in 2015, U.S. police killed 776 people, 161 of whom were completely unarmed at the time of their death.
The data was compiled by The Guardian for a project called “The Counted,” a continuously updated, interactive database of police killings in the United States. Based on their figures, police have killed, on average, about three people per day so far this year. The Counted database is the most comprehensive information available on police killings, since no U.S. government agency maintains a similar listing.
Police killings in America have sparked a national movement for police reform, especially since the death of Mike Brown last year in Ferguson, Missouri.
Based on The Guardian’s statistics, police killed more white people than any other race this year. A total 385 white people have been killed by police this year, and 66 of them were unarmed at the time of their death.
However, activists like the members of the Black Lives Matter movement argue that police kill blacks at a rate disproportionate to their total percentage of the population — an assertion supported by The Guardian’s statistics. Police killed almost five black people per every million black residents of the U.S., compared with about 2 per million for both white and hispanic victims.
The vast majority of those killed — 745 — were men.
People were killed by police at all ages and in every state except Rhode Island, South Dakota and Vermont, three of the country’s least populated states. Certain cities stand out as more dangerous than others: The most police by killings occurred in Los Angeles (14 dead), Houston (11), Phoenix (9), New York (7) and Oklahoma City (7).
Shooting was the most common cause of police-related death, at 680. Of the 161 unarmed individuals, 71 were shot by police. The second most common cause of death found in the study were Tasers, which led to the deaths of 39 people, followed by being struck by police vehicles (26). Twenty-eight people died in police custody, according to The Guardian, but this figure does not include victims like Sandra Bland, who died in a Texas jail under conditions many describe as suspicious, although suicide was listed as her official cause of death.
Of the 582 people who were armed at the time of their death, 374 were carrying firearms and 107 were armed with knives. Of course, the numbers also cannot account for whether those killed were actively threatening police with their weapons versus those who were not, like Paul Castaway, the Native American man killed July 12 in Denver while holding a knife to his own neck.
Although police advocates claim the frequent use of force is necessary to protect officers from a highly dangerous job, the statistics don’t seem to back this up. The National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund reported that 25 officers were killed by gunfire so far in 2015, with the Officer Down Memorial Page noting that two of those deaths came from accidental discharge of their firearms.
Further, Bureau of Labor Statistics released last year show that being a police officer is not even among the country’s 10 most dangerous professions. Indeed, those statistics show that loggers, roofers, pilots and farmers are all more likely to be killed on the job than police.
California police killings database reveals 'clear racial disparities'
Black men have been killed at eight times the rate of others over past decade
Initiative signals changing tides on disclosing data about use of deadly force
‘The bottom line is, the people have a right to know what’s going on,’ said California attorney general Kamala Harris.
Ciara McCarthy and Nadja Popovich
Monday 7 September 2015 19.00 EDT
Black men have been killed by police in California at eight times the rate of other residents over the past decade, according to records released under the first in a series of new state initiatives to disclose data on the use of deadly force by law enforcement.
Statistics published by the California attorney general, Kamala Harris, stated that about 19% of almost 1,000 homicides by law enforcement recorded between 2005 and 2014 were against African American men, who made up only about 3% of the state’s population.
Harris said last week that “clear racial disparities” had emerged from the figures, which also showed African Americans were arrested and died in custody at disproportionately high rates.
“I’m deeply concerned with what the numbers show,” congresswoman Karen Bass said at a press conference, alongside Harris. “The disproportionality that the [attorney general] referred to is frightening.”
On Wednesday, Harris unveiled a new website containing what she called a “treasure trove of data” on interactions between police and the public. The Open Justice portal includes figures regarding arrest rates, deaths in custody and officers killed or assaulted. This year, several other states have taken action to release more information.
“Instead of designing systems based on some blind adherence to tradition, let’s apply metrics, let’s count what is happening,” Harris said. She later added: “The bottom line is, the people have a right to know what’s going on.”
Since 2005, police and law enforcement agencies in California have been required to submit to state authorities detailed reports about deaths in custody. But the information was made accessible and searchable for the first time last week.
“This is the first initiative of its kind across the US, to our knowledge,” said Kristin Ford, Harris’s press secretary.
California released its data as Texas also began to mandate the reporting of both fatal and non-fatal shootings by its own law enforcement agencies. A new state law went into effect on Tuesday, requiring local police departments to notify the Texas attorney general every time a law enforcement official injures or kills a civilian in a shooting.
State representative Eric Johnson collaborated with local law enforcement to create legislation focused on aggregating data, said Ana Rodriguez, Johnson’s deputy chief of staff.
“We really thought that if we wanted something to happen right now, states have to really take action to fill that data gap,” Rodriguez said.
The initiatives by America’s two most populous states represent the most significant moves by authorities to address the absence of a full national accounting of the use of deadly force by law enforcement.
At present the federal government does not publish a comprehensive record of people killed by police forces throughout the US. Instead, the FBI runs a voluntary program whereby law enforcement can choose to submit their count of “justifiable homicides” each year.
The lack of data has been sharply criticised by activist groups. President Barack Obama’s White House policing taskforce recommended that it be addressed.
The Guardian is publishing a project, The Counted, to document every person killed by law enforcement in 2015 and the details of how they died. The interactive database is collecting data such as the race and age of those killed, in addition to whether they were armed with a weapon.
In June, US senators Barbara Boxer and Cory Booker introduced legislation that would require states to report to the Justice Department every instance in which police use of force resulted in serious injury or death. The bill is currently in the committee stage.
Maryland and Colorado have passed laws this year requiring local departments to report police use of force. Maryland’s law tracks all fatalities at the hands of police, while Colorado’s monitors every time an officer shoots at a civilian.
These states join Maine, North Carolina and Oregon, which record every police killing. Minnesota police departments must report every time an officer shoots a gun, although the data is not available to the public.
Homicides by law enforcement in California
According to California’s data, 984 homicides by law enforcement officers in the state were recorded between 2005 and 2014. A homicide by law enforcement staff was defined as “a death at the hands of a law enforcement officer”, including pre- and post-arrest killings.
Within this total, 196 or 19.9% of the people killed were black. According to the state, 5.8% of the population between 2005 and 2013 was black, giving African Americans a death rate – the percentage of homicides per percentage of population – of 3.4.
About 43.8% of people killed in police custody were Hispanic, a group that made up 37.1% of the state’s population during the last nine years, giving a death rate of 1.2.
White people were 30.2% of those killed by police and constituted 41.1% of California’s population, meaning a death rate of 0.7.
The figures mean black people were killed by law enforcement at almost five times the rate of white people and almost three times that of Hispanic people.
All but six of those black people killed were males, who made up 2.9% of the population between 2005 and 2013. The death rate for black males was 6.7 – eight times higher than the 0.8 rate recorded for homicides among everyone else.
Among men only, African Americans were killed at roughly twice the rate of Hispanics and more than four times the rate of white males.
Since 2005, the number of homicides by law enforcement officers has fluctuated. The deadliest years were 2012 and 2013, which recorded 136 and 132 deaths, respectively, according to the data.
Harris said the data also showed African Americans accounted for 17% of total arrests and 25% of all deaths in custody. She also said black boys were arrested at far higher rates than white boys.
White Ex-Police Chief Who Killed Unarmed Black Man Avoids Jail Time
He must serve one year under house arrest.
The Huffington Post
09/01/2015 04:58 PM EDT
A white ex-police chief agreed Tuesday to plead guilty to misconduct in office in the shooting death of an unarmed black man, a far lesser offense than the murder charge that ended in two mistrials.
Prosecutors agreed to drop the murder charge against 38-year-old Richard Combs, who is the former police chief of the small town of Eutawville.
A judge sentenced him to 10 years, but suspended it to 1 year of house-arrest and 5 years of probation, according to the Post and Courier.
Combs stood trial twice on the murder charge, but both cases ended with hung juries. He would have faced 30 years to life if convicted of murder.
Authorities say Combs shot Walter Bailey in May 2011 as he tried to arrest him on an obstruction of justice charge weeks after he argued about his daughter's traffic ticket for driving with a broken tail light.
Prosecutors said the obstruction warrant was trumped up because Combs was angry that Bailey made him look bad on the side on the road.
When Bailey came to the Eutawville Town Hall to ask Combs to delay the trial for his daughter's ticket, the police chief informed Bailey that there was a warrant for his arrest. Witnesses said Bailey was stunned by that development and walked out of the building and back toward his truck. Combs followed him, opened the door to the vehicle and tried to take the keys out of the ignition. The two then fought briefly in the parking lot before Combs drew his weapon and opened fire.
Combs was not threatened and could have stepped away, but fired his weapon anyway, hitting Bailey three times, prosecutors said.
Defense attorneys said Combs feared for his life because he was leaning into Bailey's pickup and had just seconds to react. They said he had no pepper spray or a Taser, which left him no option but his gun.
The jury in the first case voted 9-3 to convict Combs. The jury in the second case voted 8-4 to convict, with four jurors wanting to convict Combs of murder, four wanting to convict him of voluntary manslaughter and four who thought he was not guilty, Solicitor David Pascoe said in a hearing at the Orangeburg County courthouse.
Eutawville suspended Combs after the shooting and dismissed him several months later. The town reached a $400,000 wrongful death settlement with Bailey's family.
Eutawville is a town of 300 people 50 miles southeast of Columbia. Combs was the only police officer at the time of the shooting.
Combs' lawyer said he was emotionally and financially exhausted.
The Associated Press contributed reporting
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